The Christchurch attacks during Friday Prayer at the Al Noor Mosque and Linwood Islamic Centre on the 15 March 2019 killed 51 people, injured 50 others and caused widespread community distress. Following the attack, Muslim communities around the world were heartbroken and fearful for their safety.
One of the features of violence such as the Christchurch attacks is that the impact ripples through the wider community. The event itself can undermine a sense of safety and community cohesion, even if it occurs in another country.
The New Zealand Psychology Society (NZPsS) worked with a range of psychological associations in the region, including the Australian Psychological Society (APS) in the days and weeks following the shootings. This formed part of a coordinated recovery response that was reflective of the Muslim community and their needs. This article details some of the learnings taken from the aftermath of the incident, and draws upon social-cohesion research to explore the role psychology can play following violent events.
While the country seemed prepared for post-disaster recovery following the earthquakes of 2011, Aotearoa New Zealanders felt unprepared for a modern hate-crime of this nature. This was a horrific, Islamophobic attack by a right-wing gunman on innocent Muslim people in a place of worship; a place that was considered safe from harm. There are certain characteristics of community violent events, such as the shootings in Christchurch, which make them different from other events such as natural disasters.
Both the Christchurch and international community were distraught in the wake of the attacks and the immediate community responses included:
- horror, anger, fear within the community, plus a strong sense of injustice
- shock that this event could happen; although many Muslims commented that it was not unexpected given their experience of racism and Islamophobia
- identification with the victims and the locations where the attacks took place
- fear of further violence and anxiety about continuing their everyday lives
- a need to understand why this happened and make sense of the event
- tuning in to media coverage of the event more than usual.
NZPsS and the recovery response
“Within days of the attack, the New Zealand Psychological Society set about preparing a coordinated recovery response. Having had some experience following the Christchurch earthquake, we were keen to assist when needed. We updated our webpage, sought relevant material for those affected, either directly or indirectly, and established points of contact in Christchurch and throughout the branches. I became acutely aware that despite the large amount of resources we had on trauma, we had nothing written specifically for Muslim communities. This was a major concern, particularly as there were 40 different ethnic groups affected by the attack. None of the resources available talked about how to deal with race-based trauma, or how to work with Muslim children, or distressed Muslim youth. Particular information was also needed for Muslim women who were now widowed, and in the process of iddah (the waiting period a woman observes after the death of her spouse based on the Quran) and for Muslim elderly men and women – and importantly, the resources did not offer support to maintain spiritual faith, particularly after the loss of an Imam, and the insidious nature of Islamophobia” – Dr Waikaremoana Waitoki, President-Elect, New Zealand Psychological Society.
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Impact on a global scale
Along with the immediate Muslim victims, their families and communities, the live-streaming of the attack by the gunman on social media, and the subsequent rebroadcasting by global news outlets meant people around the world witnessed the shootings and were susceptible to widespread secondary trauma. In addition, reactions both in the public and media included frightening, divisive or hateful elements which further created fear among Muslim and other migrant communities.
New Zealand psychologists along with their communities were also deeply impacted by the Christchurch attacks, particularly the small number of Muslim psychologists. The NZPsS was committed to supporting recovery efforts and rebuilding social cohesion.
The NZPsS contacted the APS, along with psychological associations around the world in the days following the shootings, and requested resources to support their community recovery efforts, specifically regarding their work with Muslim communities.
Having recently developed resources specifically on responding to community violence, including assisting children to cope, the APS shared strategies to help people cope with distressing feelings following this type of incident, and to find constructive ways to respond. The APS handbook on social cohesion, which offers strategies for promoting both community connectedness and social cohesion, was also shared.
The NZPsS was already linked into local recovery efforts and was well versed at delivering Psychological First Aid (PFA); an approach to helping people affected by an emergency, disaster or traumatic event which is based on basic principles of support to promote natural recovery. PFA aims to reduce initial distress, meet current needs, promote flexible coping and encourage adjustment. It supports recovery by helping people to identify their immediate needs, strengths and abilities to meet these needs.
Linking in with existing recovery efforts is an important part of the delivery of PFA, and in the case of the Christchurch response Dr Waitoki points out “we knew that Christchurch was experiencing an influx of help and that we needed to be careful of not getting in the way”.
The NZPsS continued to work to coordinate a recovery response that was relevant to the Muslim community and their needs in this situation. There were multiple requests for Muslim psychologists, counsellors, social workers and those able to work with Muslim communities.
Muslim psychologists and Islamic perspectives
The APS facilitated communication between the Psychology from an Islamic Perspective Interest Group (PIPIG) and the NZPsS. The PIPIG is an APS Interest Group that provides a network for psychologists with an interest in Islamic psychology, and a forum for discussion regarding the definition and nature of Islamic psychology. PIPIG has members with both interest and expertise in the way Muslims respond to adversity and trauma, and in effective religious-focused coping.
Australian Muslim communities, including members of PIPIG were also hugely affected by what happened in Christchurch, either by the personal experience of having family members injured or killed, or by being part of the community targeted in these attacks. PIPIG members were also linked with Muslim communities and psychologists around the world, and were able to inform the NZPsS about Islamic perspectives of death, trauma and coping and were practised in working with Muslim communities.
In the wake of the attacks, the PIPIG connected with the NZPsS via a series of communications between PIPIG Convenor, Shehzi Yusaf and Waikaremoana Waitoki. The purpose of this was to:
- locate Muslim psychologists in Aotearoa New Zealand
- link Muslim psychologists and groups, including those in Australia with those in Aotearoa New Zealand, to provide assistance and share knowledge
- identify gaps in the response to the needs of the Muslim community
- ensure the society was being respectful about the best approach for the community.
PIPIG offered to provide culturally and religiously appropriate training for service providers, health professionals and psychologists. While this was not deemed an immediate priority, there was agreement that needs may change over time and that in the future it may be helpful for PIPIG to provide more support and training to members of the NZPsS and come together to discuss promoting social cohesion more broadly. Rich learning could also be gained by how our colleagues across the Tasman are supporting New Zealanders to cope with the shootings and how they are working to rebuild their communities.
Islamic outlook on coping with grief and loss
- Research indicates that religious beliefs and practices can be highly effective in helping people to cope with trauma and grief. Bereaved Muslims may use religious beliefs to help cope with the loss of loved ones including some core principles. For example, in Islam, death is considered an inevitable part of life and Muslims believe death is a result of God’s will. This belief may assist in externalising the painful loss.
- The belief that Muslims return to God after death can bring comfort to grieving family members or friends, who may believe they are now in a safe place.
- Generally, grief and loss are understood and experienced within a community context. Driven by collectivism the wider community takes the responsibility of offering emotional, social and instrumental support to grieving individuals and families.
- Coping is facilitated by following the five foundations or pillars of Islam; faith, prayer, charity, fasting and pilgrimage. This includes performing Salat – the act of praying five times daily – Duas or supplications, Zikr, contemplation and remembrance of Allah, reading the Quran, Sadaqa or charity and engagement in altruism. – Khawaja and Khawaj (2019)
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Rebuilding social cohesion
Following more immediate responses to community violence, finding ways to build social cohesion is as important in the aftermath of community violence events, as it is at any other time. Building social cohesion means increasing people’s sense of belonging, inclusion, participation, recognition and legitimacy in their communities, and reducing the threat of racism and prejudice.
Of grave concern is the risk of an increase in prejudice and racism and harmful negative attitudes towards minority groups (e.g., based on religion or ethnicity) following events such as the Christchurch attacks. A prejudiced reaction against a wider group can then flow on to beget even greater extremism, creating a vicious cycle. There is also a risk of communities becoming divided on how best to respond to mass violence, which may exacerbate tensions and prolong recovery.
Responding to fear
Attending Friday prayers is a family ritual for millions of Muslims and the local mosque is considered a place of safety and community connection. Attacks against mosques in Christchurch have significantly threatened this sense of safety for Muslims in New Zealand but also here in Australia, with reports that Australian Muslims were avoiding the mosques and other public places and travelling in groups to be constantly vigilant against attack.
Fear is a characteristic response to violent extremism. However, psychology tells us that when people are fearful they can react in unhelpful ways. For example, changing behaviour based on fear and mistrust can further impact on a sense of belonging if it prevents people from going about their daily activities, and erode social cohesion. Social cohesion can be understood as the glue that binds people together in positive relationships. The more that people feel they belong and matter in our communities, the higher the individual and community wellbeing. As psychologists, we know that reaffirming the choices of communities to resume their daily activities and routines, including religious rituals, is important following community violence.
Strong leadership matters
Influential leaders are needed to counter fear; as was demonstrated by Imam Gamal Fouda at the public funeral service held in Christchurch for the victims. He called for the Government to end hate speech and the politics of fear, declaring “we are broken-hearted but we are not broken. We are alive. We are together. We are determined to not let anyone divide us”.
Along with community and religious leadership, political leaders and the media have a significant impact on how the community respond to violent attacks, including how people make sense of the tragedy and whether fear is generated for political gain. People are influenced by politicians and identify with leaders and are likely to adopt their norms.
Research has shown that authorities and leaders should position themselves consciously as part of the much larger group of respectful people who oppose violence, and direct their words towards this majority to which most people belong. Strong leadership following community violence denounces racism and violence in the form of public statements and commits to community cohesion.
Prime Minister Jacinta Ardern has received global praise for her leadership following the Christchurch attacks. She was widely viewed to have struck a balance between compassion for the victims and an unfailing resolve to prevent this from happening again, denouncing violence and announcing policy and legislative changes that backed her public statements.
Ardern’s political work and constructive choices cannot create change overnight, nor quickly shift a hostile climate or the impact of colonial history, however, her leadership has contributed to making the conditions right for collective healing; for the rebuilding of social cohesion and acted as a ‘decisive resetting’ following the extreme violence experienced in Christchurch (Weatherell, 2019).
Community responses to extreme violence
To counter community violence and racism broadly, a show of public support and solidarity from the community sends a strong message of acceptance and belonging to those directly affected communities.
Some supportive gestures following the Christchurch attacks included widespread community attendance at public vigils, memorial services and the first Friday prayers following the shootings.
Temporary memorials and shrines are often set up in the aftermath of a collective trauma event, as spontaneous expressions of the public’s grief and are now considered to be the norm. They can provide a safe space for the expression of individual and communal grief and can be an important step in the grieving process, helping also to build solidarity with other people, reclaim the physical space where the crisis occurred, and begin the healing process (Australian Red Cross, 2017).
In addition, some non-Muslim women, including Prime Minister Ardern, symbolically wore headscarves in solidarity with Muslim women, while the Maori ceremonial dance called the Hakka was performed (particularly by young people) across Aotearoa New Zealand to show support and respect for victims. Mass public participation in rituals of inclusion, warmth, and support are important in signalling the public opposition to racism and violence, and support for social unity.
As Dr Waitoki explains, “It is also really important to talk about the best parts of society that work hard to show their aroha (compassion and love) for others. Perhaps the most public reminder of how compassionate New Zealand can be was the willingness to connect, and to have a public Muslim funeral, and prayer service a week after the shootings. A Muslim call to prayer was broadcast around the country, and an Imam led the service”.
It follows that an important part of social cohesion is the feeling that people belong, and that in a diverse society, the beliefs and values of all sections of people are respected and accepted. These gestures assisted in helping victims and their families feel understood, needed, accepted and safe. Focusing on these positive actions and subsequent changes that come from distressing or tragic events, for example, increasing the motivation to turn the tide of violence and fear and work harder to build a better, safer and respectful society, is essential for fostering hope.
Where to from here?
Much work remains to rebuild the trust of Muslim communities both in Australia and in Aotearoa New Zealand. There is a unique opportunity to use psychological knowledge on what works to reduce racism and fear and to promote strong communities, which foster a better, safer and more respectful society for all members.
“Today, the world is a global village. Multiculturalism can be a success provided we as Australians develop respect, empathy, inclusiveness, and acceptance of all creeds and cultures, as our core values. This is our collective responsibility for peace and harmony” – Shehzi Yusaf, Convenor of the APS Interest Group on Psychology from an Islamic Perspective.
There are also lessons for psychology and psychologists, not only for responding to community violence and promoting social cohesion, but to ensure an inclusive, culturally appropriate profession. According to the NZPsS this need for culturally relevant and transformative teaching, research and practice in psychology is paramount if we are to assist with being a connected and inclusive society.
“During this time, I thought about how to connect with Muslim psychologists. I also thought that perhaps the difficulties Maori experience in psychology with limited cultural content specific to our worldviews also occurred for Muslim students. Do Muslim students face a Western worldview of psychology, devoid of any knowledge of the history of Islam’s contribution to psychology, or Islamic healing theories and methods? Could a Muslim student say that their training prepared them to work within an Islamic perspective? Or do they, like Maori, Pacific, Asian, African students, have to learn the cultural perspectives post-training?” – Waitoki, 2019, p.143.
As with any disaster or community violence event, the response and discourse surrounding the event continues to evolve. The April issue of the New Zealand Journal of Psychology was published on the one-month anniversary of the attack and included a range of articles written in response to the atrocity.
The corresponding author can be contacted at: [email protected]