Performance in the spotlight: Exploring psychology in the performing arts

Sport and exercise psychologists are often sought after to apply their knowledge, skills and experience from a sporting context into other performance-related industries and endeavours. Over the past two decades, this has noticeably expanded out from a natural progression into the performing arts with other ‘typical’ performers (e.g., dancers, actors, musicians, singers) through to people who work in high pressure environments that consist of clear performance outputs and requirements that are usually linked to high impact consequences for non-achievement (e.g., lawyers, surgeons, executives, military personnel, safety professionals).

Whilst these areas of application continue to increase in popularity and performance psychology is more readily recognised as an important factor in people performance across industries, the use of psychology within the performing arts continues to deepen and solidify its value as an essential and critical factor for success. This article focuses on the contribution of psychology to the performing arts that I have observed over more than 20 years – obtained through a variety of roles primarily within the dance sector including as performer, educator, health professional, researcher, commentator and senior leader.

Defining psychology in the performing arts

When exploring the nomenclature that captures the integration and use of psychology within the performing arts, many descriptors or titles can be found – performance psychology, performing arts psychology, dance psychology, music psychology, drama therapy, art therapy, dance therapy, psychology of the performing arts, psychology of singing, circus psychologist, dance psychologist, sport and exercise psychologist, and performance psychologist.

In the February 2008 edition of InPsych, Professor Peter Terry FAPS explored the definition of performance psychology and concluded that everyone ‘performs’ on a daily basis, so that the term performance psychology could encapsulate any technique or strategy to enhance effectiveness or increase wellbeing (Terry, 2008). Within my work as an applied practitioner, this concept of performance has always fitted nicely – whether working with performing artists, athletes or business leaders in the corporate sector. It does require further reflection and refinement, however, when considering the nature of performance within each particular context.

Nearly five years later and the area of performance psychology has been observed to be taking on an even stronger individually recognised presence within the broader field of psychology. Many psychological disciplines clearly identify with the solution-focused, positive psychology-influenced and excellence-in-performance approach, and as such, it appears to have brought about a further need to define what performance psychology is and where it sits in psychology.

The American Psychological Association’s (APA) Division 47: Exercise and Sport Psychology specifically undertook a process of defining the practice of sport and performance psychology. Within their exploration of defining practice in these areas, it is suggested that sport psychology is actually a domain within performance psychology; not the other way around and as such, a clear definition of performance psychology is required.

Why the need to revisit definitions? Aoyagi et al. (2011) suggest that sport psychology consists of two distinct service delivery models – performance-based interventions (i.e., performance enhancement or what they call ‘performance excellence’), and therapeutic-based interventions (i.e. sport psychology). It is the former that they recommend calling ‘performance psychology’. The authors contend that to practice competently in performance psychology, training should cover performance excellence, mental health counselling, consulting psychology and performance specialty domain(s).

This is interesting to note when considering the training pathways for sport and exercise psychologists in Australia. As outlined in Sebbens, Andersen and Hanrahan’s article on page 18 of this edition of InPsych, practitioners are trained in general psychological skills and knowledge first, and as psychologists with expertise in working within sport, exercise and performance settings second. This provides a broader education and training base, and focuses upon working with individuals as whole people not just athletes or performing artists. When considering the application of psychological knowledge and skills in the performing arts, this is an important distinction to maintain in working towards effective outcomes for clients, often due to many of the self identity issues that can arise with this unique population. For the purposes of this article, the definition of performance psychology utilised is one that reflects the holistic approach to working with individuals.

Is it more than just performance enhancement?

The short answer is YES! From my perspective, performance psychology is more than performance enhancement or performance restoration. A key focus is assisting individuals to be the best they possibly can be in whatever their ‘performance’ activity is.

When considering the application of performance psychology in a sporting domain, the psychologist’s role is often solely defined as a ‘motivator’ or performance enhancement specialist. Whilst such a strong stereotype is not found within the performing arts, often it is assumed that one’s work takes a psychopathological approach and is only centred on the problems of these ‘vulnerable, creative, sensitive and artistic creatures’.

A case of the (literally) tortured artist is Natalie Portman’s character, Nina Sayers, in the 2010 movie Black Swan. A bulimic, obsessive compulsive, insecure, paranoid, self-harming, delusional, child-like personality; a co-dependent relationship with her mother; delayed physical, sexual and social development; psychotic episodes that led her to lose touch with reality and descend into ‘madness’ – all wrapped up in the one pretty and talented but terrifying little ballerina! Whilst making a wonderful movie character, Nina was an unrealistic and full-blown pathological stereotype of a dancer.

Although performing artists can often experience issues such as eating disorders, low self esteem, substance abuse, negative perfectionism, self identity issues, injury and mental health challenges, this does not necessarily place them in a different treatment approach category to a non-performing population that might be faced with similar challenges. At the end of the day, they are still people! However, a distinction can start to be made when the type of performance activity and achievement requirements are identified for that context in light of the challenges being experienced.

Performing artists have typically undergone many years of highly specialised practice and training to reach skill levels within their art form, often starting in early childhood. Competition is fierce at every stage of training, and each performing arts area has a very clear hierarchy, be it lead roles in acting, principal or premier danseur status in dancing, first chair in an orchestral section, prima donna in the opera, frontman for a band, or ‘talent’ in broadcasting (Hays & Brown, 2004). Tradition additionally plays a significant role, with most performing art forms possessing lengthy historical origins with cultural elements that continue to be embedded to this day.

Hays and Brown (2004) suggest that three particular stressors might affect performing artists more so than other types of performers: the longevity of their professional life (or lack of it); financial issues; and the use of illegal or prescribed substances. As with sport, careers in dance are often short with many artists retiring in their 30s and 40s due to the inability of their bodies to continue to meet the gruelling physical demands. Similarly, unexpected injuries can often be career ending or long-term ‘niggles’ become too painful to work around. Furthermore, mental demands such as being away from family or partners whilst on tour, increased social isolation due to extensive rehearsal and performance schedules, limited time to explore alternate career pathways, limited career options within or across professional companies, and the rigorous demands of intensive daily training can also contribute to a decision to retire at an early age.

What dancers may then be faced with is a lack of financial earning potential, transitioning into an ‘in-between’ job to bring money in whilst they retrain in their next career – often at a time in their lives when they have the most financial responsibility associated with young families. Hays and Brown (2004) contend that other performing artists, such as actors, musicians or singers, may still experience career limits with regards to the effects of their art form on their physical being, although it might not be as significant in comparison to dancers.

As with professional sports, alcohol and other substance use and abuse can often be an issue within the performing arts to alter perception or cope with stress (Hamilton & Hamilton, 1991; Hays & Brown, 2004). Often the performing arts environment further exacerbates such problems given the touring, night-time ‘body clock’ performance cycle, insular social circle and limited available leisure time aspects.

In terms of specific performance-related challenges, performing artists can often experience performance anxiety, choking, loss of motivation, lack of direction, burnout, injuries, lack of emotional regulation, poor self confidence, sleep issues, identity crisis, low physical energy, difficult ‘team’ dynamics or conflict issues. Clear differences can also exist between classes, rehearsals and actual performances, where the stringent tech nical training focus of classes starts to give way to the development of a level of ‘artistry’ required for performances. Making the switch between these can often be challenging, as artists are often told to ‘forget’ or not focus on the very things that they have been paying full conscious attention to for weeks on end in their daily routine.

Psychology – take a bow!

When reflecting upon some of these contextual factors, it is easy to see how psychology has made a significant contribution to the performing arts. Most psychological research has focused on the areas of dance, music, singing and drama in that order. The available literature covers performance-related strategies and skills that are similar to the mental skills training in sport and exercise psychology, such as goal setting, motivation, anxiety management, focusing concentration/attention, activation/arousal control, self talk, imagery and pre-performance routines. Psychology has also demonstrably contributed to assisting performing artists to manage issues such as perfectionism, substance use, eating disorders, pain, injury, burnout, mood difficulties, career transition and occupational stress. A third broad area of contribution includes enhancing creativity, talent identification, psychological and physical screening and performing arts education.

Within the education setting, most performing arts training institutions will have some level of performance psychology curriculum, with Australia being viewed as an international leader in this space – particularly in dance. Whether this is delivered via a formalised structure as part of a course, or consultants deliver individual performance psychology services or group workshops, there is a clear and increasing recognition of the importance of ensuring that artists are trained in performance psychology to give them the best opportunity to be successful in their careers.

Furthermore, many professional companies, particularly in dance and music, will have a preferred external performance psychologist that forms part of their health team or medical network to take on individual referrals. In contrast to sport where sport psychologists work primarily on-site with their athletes at training or competition, in the performing arts often this external set-up is established so that access to the psychologist can be made away from the workplace. Whilst individual support is the primary focus, a key barrier to further increasing the use of psychology within the performing arts (including more group and organisational servicing) is the availability of funding for this.

Creative arts – a new frontier in the 21st Century?

Within the previous decade, performing artists have been more commonly recognised for their interpretive versus creative skills (Kogan, 2002) – that is, the difference between a dancer who interprets a work versus a choreographer who creates one. This is slowly changing with the increased focus upon the skills development of creative processes for performing arts students (i.e., choreography, composition, improvisation, etc). With the advent of digital technology being utilised as a performance medium, artists are now expected to demonstrate increased levels of creativity in how they present themselves via an online presence, interact with choreographers/directors/composers, articulate their interpretations, and/or participate in their daily training. Developments in neuroscience are also beginning to explore the constructs of creativity, which may offer new avenues of intervention for performing psychologists.

Whilst performing arts have typically included dance, drama, music and singing, the ‘creative arts’ – fashion, visual arts, creative writing, journalism, entertainment industries, design, architecture, animation, media and communication, technical production, film and TV – form a potential new frontier for performance psychologists to apply their psychological skills.

Working in the performing arts

Psychologists trained in sport and exercise psychology work most regularly with performing artists, although many clinical or counselling psychologists will have an interest and may wish to practice within this area. The performing arts field is often a natural progression for sport and exercise (or performance) psychologists due to the many similarities that can be found between performing in sport or on a stage. However, just as when working with different sports (individual, team, contact, non-contact) or different populations (male, female, children, adolescents, adults, different nationalities), it is important to invest the time to understand the background, history, context, language and culture of the relevant performing art form where the psychological work will be undertaken.

To assist psychologists to become familiar with the most current research and applied practice of psychology within the performing arts, a range of key journals and performing arts medicine associations are outlined in the boxed information below. A significant number of resources are available via links on many of the listed associations’ websites, and opportunities to attend performing arts-related professional development events are also detailed.

Enjoy your foray into the wonderful artistic world!

The author can be contacted at [email protected]